{"id":3300,"date":"2016-07-13T02:07:19","date_gmt":"2016-07-13T06:07:19","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/health.glutenfreeworks.com\/2013\/03\/28\/eicosapentaenoic-acid-epa-deficiency-3\/"},"modified":"2020-07-11T10:38:27","modified_gmt":"2020-07-11T14:38:27","slug":"eicosapentaenoic-acid-epa-deficiency-3","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/eicosapentaenoic-acid-epa-deficiency-3\/","title":{"rendered":"EPA (Eicosapentaenoic Acid) Deficiency"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"attachment_8924\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/smoked-mackerel_21135768.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-8924\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-8924\" src=\"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/smoked-mackerel_21135768-300x184.jpg\" alt=\"Macherel...\" width=\"300\" height=\"184\" srcset=\"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/smoked-mackerel_21135768-300x184.jpg 300w, https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/10\/smoked-mackerel_21135768.jpg 626w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-8924\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Macherel&#8230;EPA Rich!<\/p><\/div>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">What Is EPA?<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><span class=\"dropcap\">E<\/span>PA (eicosapentaenoic acid) is an essential omega-3 fatty acid that is crucial for fetal brain and retina development and the child\u2019s subsequent neurodevelopment among very many other activities in people of all ages.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Omega-3 fatty acids \u00a0are polyunsaturated long chain\u00a0fatty acids which must be obtained from animal foods since they do not occur in plants.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In all ages, EPA is <strong>essential<\/strong> for normal brain function.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Q<\/strong>: Why is EPA essential to the way the brain works?<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>A<\/strong>: EPA helps nerve cells in the brain to communicate with each other.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In pregnancy, EPA may also play a role in determining the length of gestation and in preventing perinatal depression in the mother.<a href=\"#footnote_1_3300\" id=\"identifier_1_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Coletta JM, Bell SJ, and Roman AS. Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Pregnancy. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Fall; 3(4): 163&ndash;171\">1<\/a> and is essential for normal growth in children.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">EPA is important building material for the eicosanoids, a large group of highly bioactive hormone-like substances including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes that are involved in blood clotting, inflammation, and vasoconstriction. Its many important functions are described below.<\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">What Is EPA Deficiency?<\/h2>\n<p><!--more--><\/p>\n<ul class=\"cp_check red\">\n<li>EPA deficiency in celiac disease results when the level within cells is too low to meet metabolic needs of the body for this fatty acid.<\/li>\n<li>Deficiency is characterized by these features:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Functional disturbances of attention, cognition, behavior, and mood.<\/li>\n<li>Alterations in skin integrity, blood clotting responses, inflammatory responses, and immune responses.<\/li>\n<li>Difficulties with appetite or digestion, temperature regulation and sleep.<\/li>\n<li>EPA deprivation during pregnancy is associated with impaired developmental and behavior scores of the child.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">How Prevalent Is EPA Deficiency in Celiac Disease?<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">EPA deficiency was found to be common in patients with untreated celiac disease.<a href=\"#footnote_2_3300\" id=\"identifier_2_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Krums LM, Pafenov AI, Ekisenina NI. Disorders in lipid metabolism in patients with chronic diseases of the small intestine. Klinicheskaia Meditsina. Nov 1990; 68(11):54-7.\">2<\/a><\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">What Are The Symptoms Of EPA Deficiency?<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet red\">\n<li>Aggression.<\/li>\n<li>Apathy.<\/li>\n<li>Appetite &#8211; poor.<\/li>\n<li>Blood clotting is too rapid.<\/li>\n<li>Cognitive disorders including dyslexia and dyspraxia.<\/li>\n<li>Elevated triglycerides in blood.<\/li>\n<li>Excessive thirst.<\/li>\n<li>Eye disorders including dry eye syndrome and macular degeneration.<\/li>\n<li>Frequent urination.<\/li>\n<li>Mental disorders including ADHD, depression, bipolar disorder, the schizophrenia spectrum, autistic spectrum disorders.<\/li>\n<li>Sleep disorders.<\/li>\n<li>Skin disorders including dry rough skin, eczema, acne, worsening of psoriasis.<\/li>\n<li>Vascular disorders including hypertension and atherosclerosis.<\/li>\n<li>In children, tantrums may develop.<\/li>\n<li>In females, dysmenorrhea and PMS occur.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">How Does The Body Get EPA?<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"cp_check black\">\n<li>EPA should be obtained in the diet but can be synthesized in the body from alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a plant source, provided there is adequate ALA available.<a href=\"#footnote_3_3300\" id=\"identifier_3_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Kathleen Mahan and Sylvia Escott-Stump, ed. Krause&rsquo;s Food, Nutrition &amp; Diet Therapy, 10th Edition. Philadelphia, PA. USA: W.B. Saunders Company, 2000.\">3<\/a><\/li>\n<li>However, alpha-linolenic acid is not a reliable means of obtaining EPA.<a href=\"#footnote_4_3300\" id=\"identifier_4_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Richardson AJ. The importance of omega-3 fatty acids for behavior, cognition, and mood. Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition. 2003;47(2):92-8\">4<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Additionally, selenium deficiency can interfere with the conversion of alpha-linolenic acid into EPA when needed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">What Does EPA Do In The Body?<\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Required for producing energy in the body.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Balances mood.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Needed for skin, nail and hair health.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Needed for nerve transmission. EPA opposes arachidonic acid in acting as second messenger in chemical neurotransmitter systems as well as contributing to numerous other aspects of cell signaling.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Reduces inflammation in response to injury or infection by interfering with the inflammatory effect of opposing eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid (an opposing omega-6 fatty acid).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Limits late stage clotting.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Counters vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) caused by opposing omega-6 fatty acids.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Exerts a specific preventive effect against hypertension by enhancing endothelial nitric oxide synthesis, which constricts blood vessels, and suppressing the production of transforming growth factor-B. It inhibits the formation of TXA2, a vasoconstrictor and platelet aggegator, and enhances that of PGI3 , a vasodilator and platelet anti-aggregator.<a href=\"#footnote_5_3300\" id=\"identifier_5_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Das N. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids interact with nitric oxide, superoxide anion, and transforming growth-B to prevent human essential hypertension. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004; 58:195-203.\">5<\/a><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Exerts a preventive effect against atherosclerosis, cardiovascular heart disease and stroke. EPA lowers triglycerides by inhibiting VLDL (very low density lipoprotein), and apoprotein B-100 synthesis and by decreasing abnormal fat in the blood after meals.<a href=\"#footnote_3_3300\" id=\"identifier_6_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Kathleen Mahan and Sylvia Escott-Stump, ed. Krause&rsquo;s Food, Nutrition &amp; Diet Therapy, 10th Edition. Philadelphia, PA. USA: W.B. Saunders Company, 2000.\">3<\/a><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Significantly decreases serum triglycerides, which underlie bad cholesterol (LDL).<a href=\"#footnote_6_3300\" id=\"identifier_7_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Egert S, Kannenberg F, Somoza V, et al. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid, EPA, and DHA have differential effects on LDL fatty acid composition but similar effects on serum lipid profiles in normolipidemic humans. J Nutr. 2009;139:861&ndash;868. doi: 10.3945\/jn.108.103861\">6<\/a><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Increases calcium levels in the body, preventing bone loss.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">How Does EPA Deficiency Develop In Celiac Disease and\/or Gluten Sensitivity?<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"cp_check red\">\n<li>EPA deficiency results from fat malabsorption in celiac disease, and<\/li>\n<li>Lack of necessary vitamin and mineral co-factors needed to use EPA, including zinc, magnesium, manganese, and vitamin B3, vitamin B6 and vitamin C.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: justify\">Does EPA Deficiency Respond To Gluten Free Diet?<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Yes. Celiac disease-related EPA deficiency responds to a nutritious gluten free diet containing adequate EPA. Direct intake of preformed EPA supplement is likely to be most effective, as alpha-linoleic acid to EPA conversion may be limited.<\/p>\n<h2>6 Steps To Correct EPA Deficiency:<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"cp_check green\" style=\"font-weight: normal\">\n<li><em><span style=\"color: #800000\"><span class=\"dropcap\"><strong>1<\/strong><\/span><\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #800000\">Meet, or Exceed the AI(Adequate Intake) Requirement for EPA in milligrams (mg) per day:<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"font-weight: normal;text-align: center\"><div class=\"box success\"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"tieicon-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\tRequirements are not established to prevent deficiency.\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<ul class=\"cp_check green\" style=\"font-weight: normal\">\n<li><em><span style=\"color: #800000\"><span class=\"dropcap\"><strong>2<\/strong><\/span><\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #800000\">Diet &#8211; Include Food Sources Richest in EPA:<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;padding-left: 30px\"><div class=\"box shadow\"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"tieicon-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t<strong>Plant sources are not a source of EPA. <\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Highest Animal Sources<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;padding-left: 30px\">Deep Ocean Fish Oil: Menhaden fish oil. Cod liver oil. Salmon oil. Herring oil.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;padding-left: 30px\"><strong>High Animal Sources Come from Fish: <\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Sardines in oil.<\/li>\n<li>Pacific herring.<\/li>\n<li>Mackerel.<\/li>\n<li>Chinook salmon.<\/li>\n<li>Sablefish.<\/li>\n<li>Atlantic herring.<\/li>\n<li>Atlantic sturgeon.<\/li>\n<li>Then halibut,sockeye salmon, anchovy, and mullet.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Lesser amounts:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<ul>\n<li>High omega-3 eggs.<\/li>\n<li>Common periwinkle.<\/li>\n<li>Conch.<\/li>\n<li>Pacific oyster.<a href=\"#footnote_3_3300\" id=\"identifier_8_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Kathleen Mahan and Sylvia Escott-Stump, ed. Krause&rsquo;s Food, Nutrition &amp; Diet Therapy, 10th Edition. Philadelphia, PA. USA: W.B. Saunders Company, 2000.\">3<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/ul>\n<ul class=\"cp_check green\">\n<li><em><span style=\"color: #800000\"><span class=\"dropcap\"><strong>3<\/strong><\/span><\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #800000\">\u00a0Diet &#8211; Avoid, Limit, or Eat Separately These Foods\u00a0<strong>That Deplete or Interfere With Absorption:<\/strong><\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"box shadow\"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"tieicon-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet red\">\n<li>Deep fried foods fried in trans-fats.<\/li>\n<li>Meat.<\/li>\n<li>Milk products.<\/li>\n<li>Alcoholic drinks.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<ul class=\"cp_check green\">\n<li><em><span style=\"color: #800000\"><span class=\"dropcap\"><strong>4<\/strong><\/span><\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #800000\">Monitor Medications That Deplete, Interfere With Absorption, Or Involve Other Interactions:<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><div class=\"box shadow\"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"tieicon-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">Here are common medications that interact with EPA. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about this possible adverse effect if you are taking any of the drugs listed below. <strong>Do not stop prescribed medications without supervision.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\">This is not a complete listing.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>CHOLESTEROL LOWERING DRUGS<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet blue\" style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>Fat binding medications like Colestid, Questran interfere with absorption of EPA.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>BILE SEQUESTRANTS<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet blue\" style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li>Cholestyramine, colestipol interfere with absorption of EPA.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;text-align: justify\"><strong>BLOOD-THINNING MEDICATIONS<\/strong>\u00a0&#8212; Omega-3 fatty acids may increase the blood-thinning effects of warfarin (Coumadin), aspirin, or other blood-thinning medications, leading to the risk of increased bleeding. They should only be taken together under your doctor&#8217;s supervision.<a href=\"#footnote_7_3300\" id=\"identifier_9_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Possible Interactions with: Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) | University of Maryland Medical Center http:\/\/umm.edu\/health\/medical\/altmed\/supplement-interaction\/possible-interactions-with-alphalinolenic-acid-ala#ixzz3HT7cshoK&nbsp;\">7<\/a>. Includes Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) like Ibuprofen.\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<ul class=\"cp_check green\" style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li><em><span style=\"color: #800000\"><span class=\"dropcap\"><strong>5<\/strong><\/span><strong>Manage\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #800000\">Nutritional Supplements to Obtain EPA<\/span><\/strong><\/em><em><strong>:<\/strong><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><div class=\"box shadow\"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"tieicon-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet orange\">\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Fish oil soft gel capsules, tablets and liquid supplements.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Flax oil capsules and liquid supplements supply alpha-linolenic acid, which is a parent omega-3 fatty acid that the body can convert to EPA&#8230; but this unreliable conversion is at a low level AND requires adequate vitamin co-factors to be available.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><strong>Caution<\/strong><em>: At high doses eicosapentaenoic acid supplements can increase the risk of bleeding and hemorrhagic stroke\u00a0because of its anti-clotting effect.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>Do not use EPA supplements without the advice of your physician if:<\/em><\/p>\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet black\">\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">You are pregnant or breast-feeding.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>You have high blood triglyceride levels. <\/em><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><em>You have prostate cancer or are at high risk for prostate cancer (e.g., father or brother with prostate cancer).<a href=\"#footnote_8_3300\" id=\"identifier_10_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"http:\/\/www.medicinenet.com\/alpha-linolenic_acid-page2\/supplements-vitamins.htmaccessed 12\/9\/12\">8<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul class=\"cp_check green\">\n<li><em><span style=\"color: #800000\"><span class=\"dropcap\"><strong>6<\/strong><\/span><\/span><strong><span style=\"color: #800000\">Other Supplements That Deplete or Interfere With Absorption:<\/span><\/strong><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"box shadow\"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"tieicon-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t\n<ul class=\"cp_bullet red\">\n<li>Arachidonic acid supplements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Check with your pharmacist.\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<h2>What Do Medical Research Studies Tell About EPA Deficiency In Celiac Disease and\/or Gluten Sensitivity?<\/h2>\n<h4><strong>RESEARCH STUDY SUMMARIES<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">&#8220;<strong>EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.<\/strong>&#8221; This study investigating evidence and seeking to provide an updated meta-analysis of all double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized controlled trials (28) examining the effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in which depressive symptoms were a reported outcome found that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. The study also aimed to specifically test the differential effectiveness of EPA versus DHA through meta-regression and subgroup analyses.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Meta-regression studies showed a significant effect of higher levels of baseline depression and lower supplement DHA EPA ratio on therapeutic efficacy. Subgroup analyses showed significant effects for: (1) diagnostic category (bipolar disorder and major depression showing significant improvement with omega3 supplementation versus mild-to-moderate depression, chronic fatigue and non-clinical populations not showing significant improvement); (2) therapeutic as opposed to preventive intervention; (3) adjunctive treatment as opposed to monotherapy; and (4) supplement type. Symptoms of depression were not significantly reduced in 3 studies using pure DHA or in 4 studies using supplements containing greater than 50% DHA.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">In contrast, symptoms of depression were significantly reduced in 13 studies using supplements containing greater than 50% EPA and in 8 studies using pure ethyl-EPA . However, further meta-regression studies showed significant inverse associations between efficacy and study methodological quality, study sample size, and duration, thus limiting the confidence of these findings.<a href=\"#footnote_9_3300\" id=\"identifier_11_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-identifier-link\" title=\"Martins JG. EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Coll Nutr. 2009 Oct;28(5):525-42.\">9<\/a><\/p>\n<ol class=\"footnotes\"><li id=\"footnote_1_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Coletta JM, Bell SJ, and Roman AS. Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Pregnancy. <em>Rev Obstet Gynecol<\/em>. 2010 Fall; 3(4): 163\u2013171<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_1_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_2_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Krums LM, Pafenov AI, Ekisenina NI. Disorders in lipid metabolism in patients with chronic diseases of the small intestine. <em>Klinicheskaia Meditsina<\/em>. Nov 1990; 68(11):54-7.<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_2_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_3_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Kathleen Mahan and Sylvia Escott-Stump, ed. Krause\u2019s Food, Nutrition &amp; Diet Therapy, 10th Edition. Philadelphia, PA. USA: W.B. Saunders Company, 2000.<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_3_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_6_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_8_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_4_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Richardson AJ. The importance of omega-3 fatty acids for behavior, cognition, and mood. <em>Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition<\/em>. 2003;47(2):92-8<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_4_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_5_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Das N. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids interact with nitric oxide, superoxide anion, and transforming growth-B to prevent human essential hypertension. <em>European Journal of Clinical Nutrition<\/em>. 2004; 58:195-203.<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_5_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_6_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Egert S, Kannenberg F, Somoza V, et al. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid, EPA, and DHA have differential effects on LDL fatty acid composition but similar effects on serum lipid profiles in normolipidemic humans. J Nutr. 2009;139:861\u2013868. doi: 10.3945\/jn.108.103861<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_7_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_7_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Possible Interactions with: Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) | University of Maryland Medical Center http:\/\/umm.edu\/health\/medical\/altmed\/supplement-interaction\/possible-interactions-with-alphalinolenic-acid-ala#ixzz3HT7cshoK\u00a0<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_9_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_8_3300\" class=\"footnote\">http:\/\/www.medicinenet.com\/alpha-linolenic_acid-page2\/supplements-vitamins.htmaccessed 12\/9\/12<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_10_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><li id=\"footnote_9_3300\" class=\"footnote\">Martins JG. EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. <em>J Am Coll Nutr<\/em>. 2009 Oct;28(5):525-42.<span class=\"footnote-back-link-wrapper\"> [<a href=\"#identifier_11_3300\" class=\"footnote-link footnote-back-link\">&#8617;<\/a>]<\/span><\/li><\/ol>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>What Is EPA? EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) is an essential omega-3 fatty acid that is crucial for fetal brain and retina development and the child\u2019s subsequent neurodevelopment among very many other activities in people of all ages. Omega-3 fatty acids \u00a0are polyunsaturated long chain\u00a0fatty acids which must be obtained from animal foods since they do not &#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":8924,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[4,1002,58,1682,1131,119,974],"tags":[1884,1785,2056,1576,445,2051,2059,2057,1703,1699,470,627,2060,2050,912,2054,863,287,2055,1894,2053,2062,346,1722,619,382,1726,319,2064,1727,8,1885,1391,1914,1316,758,1707,2058,1711,1300,2063,1191,2061],"class_list":["post-3300","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-health-conditions-2","category-eicosapentaenoic-acid-epa-omega-3-fatty-acids","category-essential-fatty-acids","category-malabsorption-disorders","category-nutrient-deficiencies","category-omega-3-fatty-acids","category-symptoms","tag-health-conditions-2","tag-acne","tag-adhd","tag-aggression","tag-apathy","tag-atherosclerosis-hardening-of-arteries","tag-autistic-spectrum-disorders","tag-bipolar-disorder","tag-blood-system","tag-cardiovascular-system","tag-depression","tag-dry-eyes","tag-dry-rough-skin","tag-dyslexia","tag-dysmenorrhea","tag-dyspraxia","tag-eczema","tag-eicosapentaenoic-acid-epa-deficiency","tag-elevated-triglycerides","tag-essential-fatty-acids","tag-fast-blood-clotting","tag-frequent-urination","tag-hypertension","tag-immune-system","tag-inflammation","tag-insomnia","tag-integumentary-body-surfaces-system","tag-malabsorption","tag-mood-disorders","tag-nervous","tag-nutrient-deficiency","tag-nutrient-deficiency-symptoms","tag-nutrients-2","tag-omega-3-fatty-acids","tag-poor-appetite","tag-premenstrual-syndrome-pms","tag-reproductive-system","tag-schizophrenia-spectrum","tag-sensory-system","tag-tantrums","tag-temperature-regulation","tag-thirst","tag-worsening-of-psoriasis"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3300","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/7"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3300"}],"version-history":[{"count":36,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3300\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":17136,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3300\/revisions\/17136"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/8924"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3300"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3300"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/glutenfreeworks.com\/health\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3300"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}