Page Contents
What Is Autism and Learning Disabilities?
Autism and learning disabilities constititute a non-progressive psychiatric syndrome appearing in childhood characterized by withdrawal from communication with others often accompanied by repetitive or primitive behaviors.
Primary gastrointestinal pathology may play an important role in the inception and clinical expression of autism.
Autistic children often manifest complex biochemical and immunological abnormalities.1 Following are four main features involving the digestive tract:
1) Brain dysfunction from an abnormal gut. Common characteristics of hepatic encephalopathy (brain dysfunction caused by liver disease) and a form of autism associated with developmental regression and immune caused gastrointestinal pathology (abnormal) in an apparently healthy child, have led to the proposal that there may be similar mechanisms of toxic brain dysfunction caused by gluten and casein proteins.
Gluten in wheat and casein in cow milk are called exomorphines because they act like morphine (opioid) in the brain. Aberrations in opioid biochemistry are common in autism.
2) Characteristic intestinal pathology. Many autistic children with gut symptoms have ileocolonoic lymphoid nodular hyperplasia and inflammation of the intestinal lining. The colon lesion consisting of a mucosal infiltrate of yo T cells and Celiac Disease8+ T cells and crypt cell proliferation is enhanced significantly, and the basement membrane is thicker than in normal or disease groups. Neutrophil and eosinophil mucosal infiltration and absence on colonic epithelium of HLA-DR antigen suggests a T-helper -2 dominated immune response.
The corresponding small intestinal lesion also shows a distinct inflammatory reaction in which immune-mediated epithelial cell damage is predominant and blood anitibodies of the IgG type colonizes with complement.
3) Intestinal permeability abnormalities. A subset of children with autism were found to display increased immune reactivity to gluten, the mechanism of which appears to be distinct from that in celiac disease. The increased anti-gliadin antibody response and its association with gastrointestinal symptoms points to a potential mechanism involving immunologic and/or intestinal permeability abnormalities in affected children.2
4) Secondary dysbiosis. Anaerobic dysbiosis develops in the colon caused by fermentation of the overload of undigested food arriving from the small intestine. Billions of microbes in the colon normally breakdown undigested food, however, in autism, the process is dysfunctional and produces byproducts that are toxic to the brain resulting in encephalopathy.
What Is Autism and Learning Disabilities In Celiac Disease and/or Gluten Sensitivity?
- Relationship between autism and learning disabilities and celiac disease. Autism and learning disabilities are neurologic disorders associated with celiac disease and may be a presenting feature of untreated celiac disease in children whose immune system is abnormally triggered by gluten/casein proteins.3
- Relationship between autism and learning disabilities and gluten sensitivity. A subset of children with autism displays increased immune reactivity to gluten, the mechanism of which appears to be distinct from that in celiac disease. The increased anti-gliadin antibody response and its association with gastrointestinal symptoms points to a potential mechanism involving immunologic and/or intestinal permeability abnormalities in affected children. The IgG anti-gliadin antibody response was significantly greater in the autistic children with gastrointestinal symptoms in comparison to those without them. There was no difference in IgA response to gliadin across groups. The levels of celiac disease-specific serologic markers, i.e., antibodies to deamidated gliadin and TG2, did not differ between patients and controls. An association between increased anti-gliadin antibody and presence of HLA-DQ2 and/or -DQ8 was not observed.4
- Relationship between autism and learning disabilities and antibodies/intestinal permeability. In autistic children with paired/impaired intestinal permeability and under dietary regimen either regular or restricted found that the immune system of a subgroup of children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) is triggered by gluten and casein. This could be related either to anti-gliadin IgG antibodies (AGA-IgG), deamidated-gliadin-peptide IgG (DGP-IgG), and Casein IgG elevated production or to impaired intestinal barrier function. Casein IgG titers resulted to be more frequently and significantly higher in ASDs than in controls. Intestinal permeability was increased in 25.6% of ASDs compared to 2.3% of healthy children. Systemic antibodies production was not influenced by paired/impaired intestinal permeability.3
- Relationship between autism and learning disabilities and diet. Some of the reported response to celiac diets in children with autism may be related to correction of nutritional deficiency resulting from undiagnosed gluten sensitivity and consequent malabsorption.5
- Relationship between autism and learning disabilities and abnormal stool pattern. By parental report, children with language regression more frequently exhibited an abnormal stool pattern (40% vs 12%) and had an increased family history of celiac disease or inflammatory bowel disease (24% vs 0%) and of rheumatoid arthritis (30% vs 11%). Among 35 children with a family history of autoimmune disease, an abnormal stool pattern was reported more frequently in those with language regression (78% vs 15%) than in those without. Additional studies are needed to examine a possible shared autoimmune process.6
How Prevalent Is Autism and Learning Disabilities?
Autism has increased prevalence in celiac disease.1
In 35 children with language regression, 24% vs 0% controls had an increased family history of celiac disease.6
What Are The Symptoms Of Autism and Learning Disabilities?
Autism is marked by these symptoms:
- Self-absorption.
- Inaccessibility.
- Aloneness.
- Inability to relate.
- Repetitive play.
- Rage reactions if interrupted.
- Rhythmical movements.
- Many language disturbances.
- Gastrointestinal symptoms include pain, esophageal reflux, diarrhea, chronic constipation.1
How Does Autism And Learning Disabilities Develop In Celiac Disease and/or Gluten Sensitivity?
- Autism results from an unclear mechanism.
- Gluten exposure with toxicity from the gut and autoimmunity are the forerunners. The observed associations between familial autoimmunity and ASDs/infantile autism are probably attributable to a combination of a common genetic background and a possible prenatal antibody exposure or alteration in fetal environment during pregnancy.7
- Lactic acidosis from acid tolerant bacterial overgrowth appear to contribute to development.
Does Autism and Learning Disabilities Respond To Gluten-Free Diet?
- A 24 month study showed that some patients with autism spectrum disorders improve on a gluten-free, casein-free diet.8
- AGA-IgG and DPG-IgG titers were higher in children with autistic spectrum disorders compared to controls and are only partially influenced by diet regimen.3
- Mainly post-natal (after the child is born) development of autism improves on gluten free diet and casein-free diet (cow’s milk).1
- Folic acid supplementation to achieve adequate levels is beneficial in fertile women. In a study sample of 85,176 children derived from the population-based, prospective Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), 270 children in the study sample had been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. Use of prenatal folic acid supplements around the time of conception was associated with a lower risk of autistic disorder in the MoBa cohort. Although these findings cannot establish causality, they do support prenatal folic acid supplementation,9
6 Steps To Improve Autism and Learning Disabilities In Celiac Disease and/or Gluten Sensitivity:
- 1Remove the Trigger. Maintain a Strict, Nutritious Gluten Free Diet:
- Gut health is the foundation to restore ALL health. Restored health will enable you to maintain a strict gluten free diet, just as other life tasks will be easier.
- A strict gluten free diet means removing 100% of wheat, barley, rye and oats from the diet.
- Cutting out bread and other obvious sources of gluten is not good enough for recovery. Even 1/8th teaspoon of flour or bread crumb is enough to sustain the inflammation that is damaging your small intestine, causing increased permeability (leaky gut) and allowing undigested gluten to enter your body where it can damage structures and function, and instigate immune inflammatory responses.
Correct Your Individual Nutritional Needs.
- Eat foods that can replenish missing nutrients. Find them under NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES.
- Take nutritional supplements as needed. Find them under NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES.
Recovery. You should begin to feel better within a week and notice more energy as inflammation subsides and the absorbing cells that make up the surface lining of your small intestine are better able to function.
- Intestinal lining cells are replaced every 5 days. The healing process is like sunburn where the damaged surface layer of skin sloughs off and is replaced with new normal cells.
- Leaky gut normally resolves in two month after starting a gluten free diet and brings about a big improvement in health. Improvement in intestinal permeability precedes morphometric recovery (cell appearance and structure) of the small intestine in celiac disease.10
- The intestinal lining may take up to a year to heal.
- 2 Reduce Inflammation. Foods to Eat and Foods Not to Eat:
Because gluten is inflammatory, eliminate OTHER inflammatory foods from your diet to reduce an additive effect to gluten. At the same time, try to eat foods that reduce inflammation (anti-inflammatory).
- Damaging Foods. In susceptible persons, includes corn, dairy (cow), and soy. Lactose, the sugar in any animal milk disrupts intestinal permeability causing leaky gut.11
- Allergenic Foods. Includes foods that trigger the immune sytem to produce IgE antibodies. Allergy testing is the usual way to discover these offending foods.
- Shelf Stable Processed Foods. Includes any that contain additives and preservatives. Look for them on the nutrition label of the box or package. Additives and preservatives also disrupt intestinal permeability causing leaky gut.11
- Fats. Limit deep fried foods, trans-fats, saturated fats (animal fat/butter), and EXCESSIVE omega-6 fatty acid oils like corn oil. Rancid fats, sodium caprate (a medium chain fat), and sucrose monester fatty acid (a food grade surfactant) induce significant disruption of the intestinal barrier that causes leaky gut.11.
- Excessive Refined White Flours (bran layer removed). Includes products made from them such as cookies, bread, cakes, pies. Bran contains the vitamins and minerals that metabolize grains and slows the otherwise rapid entry of sugar from their digestion into the bloodstream. Also disrupt intestinal permeability causing leaky gut.11
- Refined Sugars. Includes white sugar, corn fructose and high fructose corn syrup.
- Certain Spices. Includes paprika and cayenne pepper which disrupt intestinal permeability causing leaky gut.11
- Alcohol and Caffeine. Disrupt intestinal permeability causing leaky gut.11
- Fruits. Contain ample amounts of vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals which are naturally occuring components in plants that detoxify toxins, carcinogens (reducing the risk by 50%) and mutagens.
- Non-Starchy Vegetables. Support intestinal integrity and provide ample amounts of vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals. Includes green leafy vegetables such as lettuce and kale, also onion, broccoli, garlic, and others.
- High Quality Complex Carbohydrates. Provide vitamins, minerals, and fiber while boosting serotonin levels to help you relax and feel calm. Includes whole grains, legumes, and root vegetables such as carrots, parsnips, sweet potatoes, turnips, red beets, and others.
- Antioxidants. Protect the body from inflammatory oxidant molecules that continually occur and help us handle stress and reduce irritability. Includes vitamin C-containing foods such as lemon, grapefruit, apricot, Brussels sprouts and strawberries, and others. Also, includes vitamin E-containing foods such as nuts, seeds, avocado, olive oil, and others. Cocoa is good, too.
- Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Balance opposing omega-6 fatty acids and bad fats. Fish sources includes tuna, salmon, cod, and others. Plants sources include flax, chia seeds, canola oil, and others.
- Probiotics. Supply normal microbes needed for colon health and health of the body such as these fermented foods: yogurt, kefir, and unpasteurized apple cider vinegar.
- Prebiotics/ High Fiber Foods. Food with fiber keeps our population of colonic microbes healthy.
- Protective Herbs and Spices. See below #6 below for examples.
- 3 Information Sheet You Can Take to Your Doctor or Other Health Professional:
- 4 Manage Your Medications Safely:
Certain medications cause deficiencies of B vitamins, EPA omega-3 fatty acids and iron that promote the symptoms of autism. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about this possible adverse effect if you are taking any of the drugs listed below. Do not stop prescribed medications without supervision.
This is not a complete listing.
ANTACIDS / ULCER MEDICATIONS
- Pepcid®, Tagamet®, Zantac® deplete Folic Acid, Iron, Vitamin B12.
- Magnesium and Aluminum Antacid preparations (Gaviscon®, Maalox®, Mylanta®) deplete Folic Acid, Iron, Vitamin B12.
- Prevacid®, Prilosec® deplete Vitamin B12.
- Alka Seltzer®, Baking Soda deplete Folic Acid.
ANTI-DEPRESSANTS
- Adapin®, Aventyl®, Elavil®, Pamelor®, and others deplete Vitamin B12.
ANTIBIOTICS disrupt intestinal permeability which complicates celiac disease.
- Gentomycin, Neomycin, Streptomycin, Cephalosporins, Penicillins deplete B Vitamins.
- Tetracyclines deplete Iron, Vitamin B6.
ANTI-INFLAMMATORIES disrupt intestinal permeability which complicates celiac disease.
- Corticosteroids (Prednisone, Medrol®, Aristocort®, Decadron) deplete Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Folic Acid.
- NSAIDS (Motrin®, Aleve®, Advil®, Anaprox®, Dolobid®, Feldene®, Naprosyn® and others) deplete Folic Acid.
- Aspirin and Salicylates deplete Folic acid, Iron, Pantothenate (Vitamin B5).
ANTICONVULSANTS
- Phenobarbital and Barbituates; and Dilantin®, Tegretol®, Mysoline®, Depakane/Depacon® deplete Folic Acid, Biotin, Vitamin B12, Vitamin B1.
ANTIVIRAL AGENTS
- Zidovudine (Retrovir®, AZT and other related drugs) deplete Vitamin B12.
CARDIOVASCULAR DRUGS
- Antihypertensives (Catapres®, Aldomet) deplete Vitamin B6, Vitamin B1.
CHOLESTEROL DRUGS
- Colestid® and Questran® deplete Vitamin B12, Folic Acid, Iron.
DIABETIC DRUGS
- Metformin® depletes Folic acid, Vitamin B12.
DIURETICS
- Loop Diuretics (Lasix®, Bumex®, Edecrin®) deplete Vitamin B1, Vitamin B6.
- Potassium Sparing Diuretics (Midamor®, Aldactone®, Dyrenium® and others) deplete Folic Acid.
FEMALE HORMONES disrupt intestinal permeability which complicate celiac disease.
- Oral Contraceptives (Norinyl®, Ortho-Novum®, Triphasil®, and others) deplete Vitamin B2, Vitamin B3, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Folic Acid.
- Oral Estrogen/Hormone Replacement (Evista®, Prempro®, Premarin®, Estratab® and others) deplete Vitamin B2, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Folic Acid.
MAJOR TRANQUILIZERS
- Thorazine®, Mellaril®, Prolixin®, Serentil® and others deplete Vitamin B12.
- 5Nutritional Supplements To Help Correct Deficiencies:
The type and quantity of nutritional supplements that may be needed depend on which nutrients are deficient.
- 100% multivitamin/mineral combination once a day is useful to improve overall nutrient levels. This is a safe dose, but always check with your doctor to avoid interactions with medications.
- B-Complex having 100% to 300% of folic acid or as prescribed.
- Ferrous fumarate or gluconate as prescribed following blood test for iron status.
- Fish oil preparation to supply EPA fatty acid.
Storage Note: Store container tightly sealed, away from heat, moisture and direct light to avoid loss of potency. That is, in a safe kitchen cabinet – not in the bathroom or on the kitchen table. Fish oil preparations go in the refrigerator.
- 6Manage Natural Remedies:
- Eight glasses of water are recommended per day unless there is a contraindication such as kidney or heart disease. The Institute of Medicine recommends approximately 2.7 liters (91 ounces) of total water, from all beverages and foods, each day for women and 3.7 liters (125 ounces) daily of total water for men.
- If you are thirsty, drink water. Add fresh, squeezed lemon to water. Lemon is anti-inflammatory, alkalizing and provides vitamin C.
- Hydration Test: Urine should be pale yellow. Fingertips should be plump, without pruning but this may not be reliable when fingers are swollen with edema. Lips should be plump, without puckering. The feeling of thirst can be unreliable.
- What is wrong with soda, coffee, tea, and alcohol? These drinks are dehydrating, increase acid, and deplete nutrients.
Carminative Food Remedies:
- Raspberry.
- Carrot is also a cleansing digestive tonic.
- Grape is also bile stimulating and a cleansing remedy for sluggish digestion and laxative.
- Redbeets also stimulate and improve digestion and are easily digested.
- Cabbage also stimulates and improves digestion and is also a liver decongestant.
- Lettuce also stimulates and improves digestion and is also an alterative, meaning it improves the function of organs involved with the digestion and excretion of waste products to bring about a gradual change.
- Potatoes are antispasmodic (due to atropine like properties) and a liver remedy.
Carminative Herb Remedies:
- Sage is also a digestive, astringent, bile stimulant and energy tonic that heals the mucosa. Drink as tea or use in cooking.
- Chamomile, lemon balm, and fennel, (as a tea) also help relieve nervous tension.
- Parsley also relieves indigestion.
- Rosemary as a tea and in cooking also is a nervous system tonic for stress and fatigue, bile stimulant, and can relieve headaches and indigestion.
- Thyme is also soothing remedy useful for stimulating digestion of rich, fatty foods.
Carminative Spice Remedies:
- Cloves are also antispasmodic.
- Nutmeg is also useful for indigestion.
- Ginger.
Exercise improves circulation and rids the body of toxins.
- Walking is aerobic exercise that reconditions the whole body to improve stamina. Read more about Exercise and Fitness.
- Weight training builds muscle. Read more about Exercise and Fitness.
- Stretching improves flexibilty. Read more about Exercise and Fitness.
Note: Exercise is important, but the amount and type of exercise undertaken depends on your health. Your first priority is to heal.
What Do Medical Research Studies Tell About Autism And Learning Disabilities in Celiac Disease?
RESEARCH STUDY SUMMARIES
“Markers of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity in Children with Autism.” This study investigating immune reactivity to gluten in pediatric patients diagnosed with autism according to strict criteria and to evaluate the potential link between autism and celiac disease found that a subset of children with autism displays increased immune reactivity to gluten, the mechanism of which appears to be distinct from that in celiac disease. The increased anti-gliadin antibody response and its association with GI symptoms points to a potential mechanism involving immunologic and/or intestinal permeability abnormalities in affected children.
Study participants included 37 children (with or without gastrointestinal symptoms) diagnosed with autism according to both the AutismDiagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview, Revised (ADI-R), 27 of their unaffected siblings, and 76 age-matched healthy controls. Serum specimens were tested for antibodies to native gliadin, deamidated gliadin, and transglutaminase 2 (TG2). Affected children were genotyped for celiac disease associated HLA-DQ2 and -DQ8 alleles.
Children with autism had significantly higher levels of IgG antibody to gliadin compared with unrelated healthy controls (p<0.01). The IgG levels were also higher compared to the unaffected siblings, but did not reach statistical significance. The IgG anti-gliadin antibody response was significantly greater in the autistic children with gastrointestinal symptoms in comparison to those without them (p<0.01). There was no difference in IgA response to gliadin across groups. The levels of celiac disease-specific serologic markers, i.e., antibodies to deamidated gliadin and TG2, did not differ between patients and controls. An association between increased anti-gliadin antibody and presence of HLA-DQ2 and/or -DQ8 was not observed. A subset of children with autism displays increased immune reactivity to gluten, the mechanism of which appears to be distinct from that in celiac disease. The increased anti-gliadin antibody response and its association with GI symptoms points to a potential mechanism involving immunologic and/or intestinal permeability abnormalities in affected children.12
“Antibodies against food antigens in patients with autistic spectrum disorders.” This study investigating the prevalence of antibodies to gliadin and milk proteins in autistic children with paired/impaired intestinal permeability and under dietary regimen either regular or restricted found that immune system of a subgroup of children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) is triggered by gluten and casein. This could be related either to AGA, DPG, and Casein IgG elevated production or to impaired intestinal barrier function.
162 ASDs and 44 healthy children were investigated for intestinal permeability, tissue-transglutaminase (tTG), anti-endomysiumantibodies (EMA)-IgA, and total mucosal IgA to exclude celiac disease; HLA-DQ2/-DQ8 haplotypes; total systemic antibodies (IgA, IgG, and IgE); specific systemic antibodies: α-gliadin (AGA-IgA and IgG), deamidated-gliadin-peptide (DGP-IgA and IgG), total specific gliadin IgG (all fractions: α, β, γ, and ω), β-lactoglobulin IgG, α-lactalbumin IgG, casein IgG; and milk IgE, casein IgE, gluten IgE,-lactoglobulin IgE, and α-lactalbumin IgE.
AGA-IgG and DPG-IgG titers were higher in ASDs compared to controls and are only partially influenced by diet regimen. Casein IgG titers resulted to be more frequently and significantly higher in ASDs than in controls. Intestinal permeability was increased in 25.6% of ASDs compared to 2.3% of healthy children. Systemic antibodies production was not influenced by paired/impaired intestinal permeability.3
“The ScanBrit randomised, controlled, single-blind study of a gluten- and casein-free dietary intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders.” This study reports the results from a two-stage, 24-month, randomised, controlled trial incorporating an adaptive ‘catch-up’ design and interim analysis. Results suggest that intervention using a gluten free and casein free diet may positively affect developmental outcome for some children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD).
Stage 1 of the trial saw 72 Danish children (aged 4 years to 10 years 11 months) assigned to diet (A) or non-diet (B) groups by stratified randomization. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS) were used to assess core autism behaviors, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) to ascertain developmental level, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – IV scale (ADHD-IV) to determine inattention and hyperactivity.
Participants were tested at baseline, 8, and 12 months. Based on per protocol repeated measures analysis, data for 26 diet children and 29 controls were available at 12 months. At this point, there was a significant improvement to mean diet group scores (time*treatment interaction) on sub-domains of ADOS, GARS and ADHD-IV measures. Surpassing of predefined statistical thresholds as evidence of improvement in group A at 12 months sanctioned the re-assignment of group B participants to active dietary treatment.
Stage 2 data for 18 group A and 17 group B participants were available at 24 months. Multiple scenario analysis based on inter- and intra-group comparisons showed some evidence of sustained clinical group improvements although possibly indicative of a plateau effect for intervention. In the absence of a placebo condition to the current investigation, we are, however, unable to disqualify potential effects derived from intervention outside of dietary changes. Further studies are required to ascertain potential best- and non-responders to intervention.13
“Association of family history of autoimmune diseases and autism spectrum disorders.” This nationwide study investigating the association between family history of autoimmune diseases (ADs) and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)/infantile autism confirmed associations from previous studies regarding family history of type 1 diabetes and infantile autism and maternal history of rheumatoid arthritis and ASD. A significant association between maternal history of celiac disease and ASDs was observed for the first time.
The study cohort consisted of all of the children born in Denmark from 1993 through 2004 (689 196 children). A total of 3325 children were diagnosed with ASDs, of which 1089 had an infantile autism diagnosis. Outcome data consisted of both inpatient and outpatient diagnoses reported to the Danish National Psychiatric Registry. Information on ADs in parents and siblings of the cohort members was obtained from the Danish National Hospital Register. The incidence rate ratio of autism was estimated by using log-linear Poisson regression.
The observed associations between familial autoimmunity and ASDs/infantile autism are probably attributable to a combination of a common genetic background and a possible prenatal antibody exposure or alteration in fetal environment during pregnancy.7
“Gastrointestinal symptoms in children with an autism spectrum disorder and language regression.” This cross-sectional study comparing gastrointestinal problems in children with an autism spectrum disorder with and without a history of language regression found an association between children with language regression, a family history of autoimmune disease, and gastrointestinal symptoms. Structured interviews were conducted in 100 children with autism spectrum disorder.
By parental report, children with language regression more frequently exhibited an abnormal stool pattern (40% vs 12%) and had an increased family history of celiac disease or inflammatory bowel disease (24% vs 0%) and of rheumatoid arthritis (30% vs 11%). Among 35 children with a family history of autoimmune disease, an abnormal stool pattern was reported more frequently in those with language regression (78% vs 15%) than in those without. Additional studies are needed to examine a possible shared autoimmune process.14
CASE REPORT SUMMARIES
“Celiac disease presenting as autism.” This case report describes diagnosis of celiac disease in a 5-year-old boy diagnosed with severe autism at a specialty clinic for autistic spectrum disorders. After initial investigation suggested underlying celiac disease and varied nutrient deficiencies, a gluten-free diet was instituted along with dietary and supplemental measures to secure nutritional sufficiency. The patient’s gastrointestinal symptoms rapidly resolved, and signs and symptoms suggestive of autism progressively abated. This case is an example of a common malabsorption syndrome associated with central nervous system dysfunction and suggests that in some contexts, nutritional deficiency may be a determinant of developmental delay. It is recommended that all children with neurodevelopmental problems be assessed for nutritional deficiency and malabsorption syndromes.15
- Wakefield AJ, Puleston M, Montgomery SM, Anthony A, O’Leary JJ, Murch SH. Review Article: the concept of entero-colonic encephalopathy, autism, and opioid receptor ligands. Aliment Parmacol Ther. 2002; 16:663-674. [↩] [↩] [↩] [↩]
- Lau NM, Green PH, Taylor AK, Hellberg D, Ajamian M, Tan CZ, Kosofsky BE, Higgins JJ, Rajadhyaksha AM, Alaedini A. Markers of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity in Children with Autism. PLoS One. 2013 Jun 18;8(6):e66155. Print 2013. [↩]
- de Magistris L, Picardi A, Siniscalco D, Riccio MP, Sapone A, Cariello R, Abbadessa S, Medici N, Lammers KM, Schiraldi C, Iardino P, Marotta R, Tolone C,Fasano A, Pascotto A, Bravaccio C. Antibodies against food antigens in patients with autistic spectrum disorders. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:729349. doi: 10.1155/2013/729349. [↩] [↩] [↩] [↩]
- Lau NM, Green PH, Taylor AK, Hellberg D, Ajamian M, Tan CZ, Kosofsky BE, Higgins JJ, Rajadhyaksha AM, Alaedini A. Markers of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity in Children with Autism. PLoS One. 2013 Jun 18;8(6):e66155.. [↩]
- Genuis SJ, Bouchard TP. Celiac disease presenting as autism. J Child Neurol. 2010 Jan;25(1):114-9. doi: 10.1177/0883073809336127. [↩]
- Valicenti-McDermott MD, McVicar K, Cohen HJ, Wershil BK, Shinnar S. Gastrointestinal symptoms in children with an autism spectrum disorder and language regression. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Dec;39(6):392-8. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.07.019. [↩] [↩]
- Atladóttir HO1, Pedersen MG, Thorsen P, Mortensen PB, Deleuran B, Eaton WW, Parner ET. Association of family history of autoimmune diseases and autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2009 Aug;124(2):687-94. doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-2445. [↩] [↩]
- Whiteley P1, Haracopos D, Knivsberg AM, Reichelt KL, Parlar S, Jacobsen J, Seim A, Pedersen L, Schondel M, Shattock P. The ScanBrit randomised, controlled, single-blind study of a gluten- and casein-free dietary intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders. Nutr Neurosci. 2010 Apr;13(2):87-100. doi: 10.1179/147683010X12611460763922. [↩]
- Surén P, Roth C, Bresnahan M, Haugen M, Hornig M, Hirtz D, Lie KK, Lipkin WI, Magnus P, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Schjølberg S, Davey Smith G, Øyen AS, Susser E, Stoltenberg C. Association between maternal use of folic acid supplements and risk of autism spectrum disorders in children. JAMA. 2013 Feb 13;309(6):570-7. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.155925. [↩]
- Cummins AG, Thompson FM, Butler RN, et al. Improvement in intestinal permeability precedes morphometric recovery of the small intestine in coeliac disease. Clinical Science. Apr 2001;100(4):379-86. [↩]
- Farhadi A, Banan A, Fields J, Keshavarzian A. Intestinal barrier: an interface between health and disease. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2003;18:479-91. [↩] [↩] [↩] [↩] [↩] [↩]
- Lau NM, Green PH, Taylor AK, Hellberg D, Ajamian M, Tan CZ, Kosofsky BE, Higgins JJ, Rajadhyaksha AM, Alaedini A. Markers of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity in Children with Autism. PLoS One. 2013 Jun 18;8(6):e66155. [↩]
- Whiteley P, Haracopos D, Knivsberg AM, Reichelt KL, Parlar S, Jacobsen J, Seim A, Pedersen L, Schondel M, Shattock P. The ScanBrit randomised, controlled, single-blind study of a gluten- and casein-free dietary intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders. Nutr Neurosci. 2010 Apr;13(2):87-100. doi: 10.1179/147683010X12611460763922. [↩]
- Valicenti-McDermott MD, McVicar K, Cohen HJ, Wershil BK, Shinnar S. Gastrointestinal symptoms in children with an autism spectrum disorder and language regression. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Dec;39(6):392-8. doi: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.07.019. [↩]
- Genuis SJ, Bouchard TP. Celiac disease presenting as autism. J Child Neurol. 2010 Jan;25(1):114-9. doi: 10.1177/0883073809336127. [↩]